Benicar

Naghma Farooqi, MD, FACOG

• Assistant Professor and Clerkship Director
• Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology
• Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center
• Lubbock, Texas

Caffeine moderately antagonizes the effects of triazolam and zopiclone on the psychomotor performance of healthy subjects arrhythmia hyperkalemia cheap benicar 40mg. A No pharmacokinetic interaction appears to occur between caffeine previous study in 7 patients had found that clozapine levels and midazolam7 or alprazolam heart attack help purchase benicar australia. One suggestion is that caffeine can block adenosine grams/mL when her caffeine intake was stopped blood pressure 3 readings purchase genuine benicar. This would appear Because of the quality of the clinical evidence (controlled to be a disadvantage at night heart attack xbox cheap benicar 20 mg mastercard, but may possibly be useful the next pharmacokinetic studies) arrhythmia recognition quiz best 20 mg benicar, experimental data have not been sought hypertension 2014 guidelines generic benicar 20 mg fast delivery. Effect of caffeine on clozapine effects of dipyridamole because it acts as a competitive antagonist of pharmacokinetics in healthy volunteers. Effects of caffeine withdrawal from the adenosine (an endogenous vasodilator involved in the action of diet on the metabolism of clozapine in schizophrenic patients. Patients should be specifically prompted to discuss less obvious potential sources such as herbal medicines. Dose-dependent inhibition of the hemodynamic response to dipyridamole by caffeine. Caffeine significantly increased the cortisol levels follow ing the dexamethasone dose; cortisol levels taken at 4pm were about 146nanomol/L with caffeine, compared with about 64nanomol/L the effects of dietary caffeine and caffeine from herbal with placebo. However, in a study in 121 patients with depression, there was no correlation between chronic low to high intake of caffeine (6mg the effects of caffeine from herbal medicines will be additive with to 2. Advantra Z contained eight times the dose of 102 Caffeine synephrine, a sympathomimetic alkaloid found in bitter orange, than 1. Blood pressure and heart rate effects following a and other stimulants in the Xenadrine must be acting synergistically single dose of bitter orange. In 15 of these cases, the product also contained caffeine: in 8 of those 15 cases the product also contained ephedra. From March 2004 to October 2006, Health Canada noted an additional 21 reports, of the heavy consumption of caffeine-containing drinks may cause which 15 were cardiovascular adverse effects. The metabolism of caffeine was not affected by the average of 24% when the coffee was withdrawn, although the levels concurrent use of bitter orange, which suggests that bitter orange is 3 of 3 patients did not change. One Experimental evidence of the patients had a 50% rise in lithium levels, and required a reduction in lithium dose from 1. Simple additive It is not clear exactly how caffeine affects the excretion of lithium by hypertensive effects would seem to be part of the explanation. In addition, remember that there is a affected by individual susceptibility, the additive stimulant effects caffeine-withdrawal syndrome (headache and fatigue being the of caffeine, the variability in the contents of alkaloids in major symptoms) that might worsen some of the major psychiatric non-prescription dietary supplements or pre-existing medical condi disorders (such as affective and schizophrenic disorders),3 for which tions,8 including compromised cardiac function. Evidence shows that these products are no safer than ephedra products when used in a 1. Caffeine withdrawal containing herbs, especially in patients with risk factors such as heart increases lithium blood levels. Lithiumtremor and caffeine intake:two casesof drinking less andshaking conditions, diabetes, thyroid disease or hypertension. It seems double the effects of simply increasing the nicotine dose from 1 to unlikely that caffeine-containing herbs will have any detrimental 2mg. Influence of caffeine on toxicity and pharmacokinetics of 5 paracetamol [Article in Polish]. Experimental evidence Because of the quality of the clinical evidence (controlled pharmacokinetic studies), experimental data have not been sought. Phenylpropanolamine can raise blood pressure and in some cases this may be further increased by caffeine. Combined use Importance and management has resulted in hypertensive crises in a few individuals. Caffeine may boost some of the isolated report describes the development of acute psychosis stimulant effects of nicotine (energy consumption, appetite suppres when caffeine was given with phenylpropanolamine. Phenylpro sion, but also adverse effects such as jitteriness), but it only appears panolamine greatly raises caffeine levels. Bear the potential for Clinical evidence this increase in effects in mind should a patient receiving nicotine replacement therapy and also taking caffeine supplements develop In a placebo-controlled study, the mean blood pressure of 16 healthy troublesome nicotine-related adverse effects. Of these cases, caffeine was also taken by 15 subjects, with outcomes such as stroke and seizure. However, it should be noted that these effects were similar to those seen in patients who Caffeine + Paracetamol had taken phenylpropanolamine alone. Mechanism Evidence, mechanism, importance and management Additive pharmacological effects. One possible Caffeine can decrease the clearance of theophylline by 18 to 29%, explanation for the lack of reports could be that these interactions prolong its half-life by up to 44% and increase its average serum may go unrecognised or be attributed to one drug only. Adverse drug effects attributed to such as coffee, tea, cola drinks, or medications, etc. Calamus is traditionally used as a carminative and spasmolytic, in acute and chronic Constituents dyspepsia, gastritis and gastric ulcer, intestinal colic and the main active constituents are found in the volatile oil, but anorexia, and for respiratory disorders. Tetraploid Pharmacokinetics (subtropical, specifically Indian) species contain 96% No relevant pharmacokinetic data found. In addition, asarone, acolamone, acoragerma Interactions overview crone, calamenol, calamene, calamone, eugenol, galangin, No interactions with calamus found. For information on the interactions of individual flavonoids present in calendula, Calendula is often used in externally applied products for the see under flavonoids, page 186. Dose-linear pharmacokinetics of oleanolic acid after intravenous and oral administration duodenal ulcers, haemorrhoids and varicose veins. When smoked, cannabinoid acids are decar boxylated by the high temperature, and reach the lung as active free cannabinoids. Psychotropic effects start from Constituents within seconds to a few minutes, reach a maximum after 20 Cannabis herb contains a wide range of cannabinoids, which to 30 minutes, and taper off within 3 to 4 hours. However, other 90 minutes, reaching their maximum after 2 to 4 hours and cannabinoids, which do not possess psychoactive properties, lasting for about 6 hours. However, medicinal cannabis is increasingly being used to Interactions overview treat chronic conditions, as an adjunct, or where other Most of the drug interaction data relate to smoking cannabis. Use medicinal name for -tetrahydrocannabinol) with cannabi of transdermal nicotine with cannabis enhances tachycardia, diol, is available as an adjunctive treatment for the symp and increases the stimulant effect of cannabis. It is also being investigated for use as an analgesic in antidepressants and cannabis. Isolated cases of rheumatoid arthritis, and to relieve spasticity in multiple hypomania have been seen when cannabis was used with sclerosis and spinal cord injury. Dronabinol and nabilone (a disulfiram and with fluoxetine, and a man taking cannabis synthetic cannabinol) are used as antiemetics in patients and sildenafil had a myocardial infarction. Indometacin might antagon used illicit drug because of its psychoactive properties, and ise some of the effects of smoking cannabis. Cytochrome P450 107 108 Cannabis enzymesinvolved in themetabolismof tetrahydrocannabinols andcannabinol by human Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study about the effects of cannabidiol9 hepatic microsomes. C Cannabis 109 Importance and management Cannabis + Alcohol Several studies have found that cannabis and alcohol produce additive detrimental effects on driving performance, but other the detrimental effects of drinking alcohol and smoking studies have not found any potentiation. Smoking impairment after cannabis has been reported to peak within 30minutes of smoking. Simultaneous use of alcohol and oral 9-tetrahydrocannabinol Intercannabinoid and cannabinoid-ethanol interactions and their effects on human performance. Modulation of the effects of alcohol on driving-related both alcohol and cannabis resulted in dramatic performance psychomotor skills by chronic exposure to cannabis. Acute and residual effects of alcohol and marijuana, alone and in combination,onmoodandperformance. Separate and combined effects of marijuana and 5 alcohol on mood, equilibrium and simulated driving. Cannabis intoxication and fatal cigarettes and drank moderate amounts of alcohol, found that the road crashes in France: population based case-control study. There were no significant additive effects on brake latency, body sway or mood when the two Clinical evidence drugs were used together. In addition, their subjective experience of the which the liver metabolises chlorpromazine, thereby reducing its drugs decreased when used together. Inhibitionof cyclosporineandtetrahydrocannabinol Cannabis + Disulfiram metabolism by cannabidiol in mouse and human microsomes. Lethal ischemic strokeafter cisplatin-based chemotherapy for testicular carcinoma and cannabis inhalation. Cannabis + Docetaxel the pharmacokinetics of docetaxel are not altered by a herbal tea containing cannabis. Cannabis + Clozapine Clinical evidence In a study investigating the effects of cannabis on docetaxel Patients who give up smoking cannabis may develop higher pharmacokinetics, 12 patients were given 200mL of a herbal tea blood levels of clozapine and be at risk of adverse reactions, containing cannabis 1g/L each day for 15days. Bedrocan) containing the cannabinoids 9-tetrahydrocannabinol Cannabis 111 18% and cannabidiol 0. Medicinal cannabis does not influence the clinical pharmacokinetics of irinotecan and docetaxel. An isolated report describes mania when a patient taking fluoxetine smoked cannabis. Evidence, mechanism, importance and management Cannabis + Nicotine A 21-year-old woman with a 9-year history of bulimia and depression was taking fluoxetine 20mg daily. The reasons for this In a study in 20healthy subjects who smoked either a low-dose or a reaction are not understood but the authors of the report point out high-dose cannabis cigarette 4hours after the application of a that one of the active components of cannabis, dronabinol placebo or a 21mg nicotine patch, nicotine enhanced the maximum (9-tetrahydrocannabinol), is, like fluoxetine, a potent inhibitor of increase in heart rate seen with cannabis. Experimental evidence Studies in mice found that nicotine enhanced the effects of 9-tetrahydrocannabinol in terms of hypolocomotion, hypothermia and antinociceptive responses. Animal studies have shown that cannabinoids may sympathetic activity of both drugs, and might also involve enhance the potency of opioids. The enhancement of morphine cannabis, and cannabis might antagonise the analgesic efficacy antinociception in mice by tetrahydrocannabinol. Enhancement of opioid antinociception by oral tetrahydrocannabinol: dose-response analysis and receptor Clinical evidence identification. Antinociceptive synergy between tetrahydrocannabi nol and opioids after oral administration. Does cannabis use predict poor outcome for heroin-dependent metacin did not alter the pharmacokinetics of -tetrahydrocanna patients on maintenance treatment The fall in intraocular pressure caused by 9-tetrahydrocannabinol was inhibited by topical indometacin. In an animal model of analgesia, chronic treatment with the interaction between cannabis and phencyclidine is based on 9-tetrahydrocannabinol markedly reduced the efficacy of aspirin, experimental evidence only. When the Importance and management study was repeated using 9-tetrahydrocannabinol in doses of the effects of indometacin on the subjective measures and 120mg/kg, the brain levels of phencyclidine were increased twofold. Cannabinoid-induced alterations in brain disposition of drugs patients receiving cannabis cigarettes or dronabinol. There is one in vitro study suggesting that 9-tetrahydrocanna Importance and management binol, a major constituent of cannabis, might induce phenytoin Short-term use of cannabis cigarettes or dronabinol does not appear metabolism. Note that, in clinical use dronabinol has induced to have any important effect on levels of indinavir or nelfinavir, nor seizures. The rate of metabolism of 9-tetrahydrocannabinol to its 11-hydroxy metabolite was not altered by phenytoin. Note also Experimental evidence that there are no reports in the literature of cannabis use affecting No relevant data found. Importance and management the vasodilatory effects of sildenafil necessitate caution in its use in patients with cardiovascular disease; myocardial infarction has rarely Cannabis + Protease inhibitors been associated with its use. Direct information is limited but it has been suggested that concurrent use should be avoided. Case study: adverse effects of smoking marijuana while receiving tricyclic antidepressants. C apsicum Capsicum species (Solanaceae) Synonym(s) and related species of capsaicin may range from 0. A further in vitro study has shown that the components are capsaicin, 6,7-dihydrocapsaicin, nordihy acute use of capsaicin inhibits P-glycoprotein whereas long drocapsaicin, homodihydrocapsaicin and homocapsaicin. Topical preparations are used unknown, not established or not clinically significant. Metabolism of capsaicinoids by P450 enzymes: a review of recent findings on reaction mechanisms, bio-activation, and detoxification processes. Similar, but greater, results were found when aspirin was given to rats that had been Mechanism treated with Capsicum annuum extract for 4weeks. However, the clinical significance of this effect is encountered clinically, and those encountered within dietary levels, unclear, especially as the capsaicin dose used in the study is 10-fold respectively.

We received scientific information packets from Jazz Pharmaceuticals hypertension 33 weeks pregnant buy 10 mg benicar overnight delivery, Forest Pharmaceuticals blood pressure omron benicar 40 mg mastercard, Inc arteria coronaria izquierda discount benicar online mastercard. Based on all these sources prehypertension follow up generic benicar 40mg with mastercard, a total of 3 blood pressure monitor app purchase generic benicar from india,458 abstracts were screened hypertension fatigue cheap generic benicar canada, of which 319 articles were retrieved and assessed for eligibility. The majority of the evidence is from observational studies with 130 articles describing 124 unique studies. Very few trials met inclusion criteria for this report; we included nine articles describing six unique trials. Appendix B provides a listing of all included studies and Appendix C provides a complete list of articles excluded at full text, along with the reasons for exclusion. There were no studies comparing an antidepressant drug with a nonpharmacological treatment, and only a few studies in which nonpharmacological treatment was used as an add-on to drug therapy. Using a best evidence approach, we focused our findings and conclusions on evidence in pregnant women with depression. To address gaps in the direct evidence, we included indirect evidence from an additional 109 observational studies of women receiving antidepressant drugs for mixed or unknown reasons compared with pregnant or postpartum women not taking an antidepressant. Findings from these studies were reported only for important outcomes when there was no better evidence, particularly for serious harms for which even such indirect evidence may be useful in guiding clinical decisions. Four additional studies were conducted in multiple countries, and included sites in the United States and Canada. Of the 124 included observational studies, 39 (30 percent) were rated high risk of 64,68,72,75,78,84,85,88-92,94,98,101,111,112,114,123,126-128,134,137,139,140,144-146,153-155,164,173,174,177,180,185 bias, were 74,82,93,104,105,110,125,136,161,169,171,192 rated low risk of bias (9 percent), and the rest of the 55-57,59-63,66,67,69-71,73,76,77,79-81,83,86,87,95 observational studies were rated medium risk of bias. High risk of bias studies suffered from potentially biased selection of patients, lack of assessment of comparability of subjects at baseline, uncertain accuracy of exposure or outcome ascertainment, and lack of appropriate statistical analysis, including controlling for potential confounding. These observational studies largely examined outcomes and associations of exposures during pregnancy, with few evaluating treatment in the postpartum period. The designs of the studies included cohort and case control, with large, linked databases providing data for most of the larger studies, including several population-based cohort studies from Nordic countries. Prospective cohort studies, including data collected by teratology information services around the world, constituted a smaller set of studies with smaller sample sizes. The control groups in most of these observational studies were pregnant women without exposure to an antidepressant drug. The indication for treatment with an antidepressant drug was reported infrequently. In a few studies, depression in either intervention or control groups was controlled for in a way that allowed comparison of treatment groups or examination of the effect on outcomes of treatment. Summary We found no clinical trials to provide direct evidence on the comparative benefit or harms of antidepressant drugs used to treat depression in pregnancy. Indirect evidence consisted of studies of women taking an antidepressant during pregnancy for any reason compared with women who did not take an antidepressant during pregnancy, with unknown depression status in either group. There were no clinical trials of pharmacologic treatment during pregnancy to inform the question of the comparative benefits of treatment. Most of these studies provide only indirect evidence, comparing women treated with antidepressants during pregnancy for any reason to pregnant women who were not treated. The diagnosis for treatment in the treated group was most often not reported, or it was reported as a baseline characteristic but with no subgroup analysis based on diagnosis. Within those categories we present the evidence by pharmacological class with all outcomes for a given class presented together. Direct evidence was the primary focus, with indirect evidence reported only for important outcomes for which evidence in pregnant women with depression did not exist or was sparse, particularly for serious harms for which even such indirect evidence may be useful in guiding clinical decisions. Two were methodologically weak with high risk of bias, due primarily to potentially biased selection of patients, unclear completeness of data, and lack 145,177 of appropriate statistical analysis, including failure to control for potential confounding. Associations of treatment effect require study populations that include depressed pregnant women with and without treatment, and ideally the study would include an assessment prior to initiation of treatment in the treated group. These studies are small, totaling 106 women (59 treated, 31 depressed without pharmacologic treatment, and 16 without depression and no treatment). However, it is important to note both that these two studies differed in the scales they used to measure depression and that all studies used measures not commonly used in studies of depression in the general population. The four other studies provided only indirect evidence because the untreated group included a mixture of women with and without depression or other mood disorders. No direct evidence was found; no studies examined anxiety symptom change in depressed pregnant women with and without treatment or comparing treatments. Anxiety scores were higher among women taking antidepressants compared with women not taking antidepressants. While there was a trend toward declining anxiety scores postpartum, it is unclear whether the declines were statistically significant. We found no direct evidence on the effect of different treatments for 195 depression on weight gain in pregnant women with depression. In a 1990 report, the Institute of Medicine recommended a maternal weight gain of 25 to 35 pounds for women with normal weight for height. Weight gain is associated both with the use of antidepressant drugs and with some forms of depression, and it can have a significant effect on maternal health; even so, there were only two medium risk of bias studies that addressed these associations. Therefore, the strength of evidence was considered insufficient (see Appendix E, Table 2). Another small study found that women in treated with fluoxetine gained an average of 37 +/ 15. Indirect evidence consisted of four prospective observational studies ranging in size from 44 to 466 women. All four studies had medium risk of bias due to potentially biased selection of patients and lack of controlling for potential confounding. The best indirect evidence on breastfeeding came from a study of 168 pregnant women enrolled by 20 weeks gestation and assessed for breastfeeding intention, 66 initiation, and breastfeeding up to 12 weeks postpartum. The analysis controlled for depression symptoms and presence of a diagnosis of major depressive disorder, as well as parity and prior experience breastfeeding (factors known to be strongly associated with future breastfeeding). Intention to exclusively breastfeed was the most significant factor associated with breastfeeding initiation and duration. There was also no association between diagnosis of major depressive disorder or depressive symptoms and initiation of breastfeeding. This evidence was insufficient strength to draw conclusions for the questions posed in this report. In both studies, preterm birth was defined as delivery prior to the 37th week of gestation, and gestational age was based on ultrasound when available in one (proportion with ultrasound validation available not 192 187,189 reported) and no method reported in the other study. Risk of preterm birth (< 37 weeks gestation) with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors compared with nonexposure Odds Ratio (95% confidence interval) Yonkers 2012 1. The magnitude of risk may have varied by timing of exposure, but evidence was inadequate to establish reliable estimates. While this study did not limit the diagnoses to depression, gestational age was determined by ultrasound. This study adjusted for several key factors, including history of prior preterm birth, but it did not adjust for severity or type of psychiatric illness. These studies performed ultrasound verification of gestational age, defined preterm birth as delivery at less than 37 weeks gestation, and found an increased risk of preterm birth. None of these studies made comparisons of pregnant women with depression and therefore only provide indirect evidence for the risk in such women. The estimate 76,111,172,173 of risk was highest with citalopram and escitalopram, with non-statistically significant 71,76,84,153 76,172 71,76,84,107,111,153,172,173 increase in risk with fluoxetine, sertraline and paroxetine but all of the estimates are likely to shift with additional studies, particularly those that control for potential confounders. The best indirect evidence came from two of the five studies using ultrasound confirmation 93,100 of gestational age. This study did not report the outcome of small for gestational age for the group with depression, but it did report the outcome of head circumference at birth. Only five of these studies used ultrasound to determine 93,95,100,110,118 gestational age, and four reported odds ratios adjusted for confounding factors. Both groups received supportive psychotherapy (no further details reported), and Beck Depression Inventory maximum scores were 24. Depression scores in the women who did not receive antidepressants were significantly lower than scores in the treated group. The study also analyzed outcomes for children whose mothers were depressed compared with those who were not and found no difference between groups. In contrast, two other studies found no difference between groups, 62Reebye, 2002 but they did not control for depression among mothers during or after pregnancy. Direct evidence from a single small study of neurobehavioral outcomes in infants was insufficient to draw conclusions. This study measured McCarthy cognitive development scores but missing data made this outcome high risk of bias. This study used maternal interviews at 6 months and 19 months after delivery to obtain assessments of milestone achievement, and information about depression was obtained from two prenatal 26 interviews. At 19 months, there was no difference between the groups in the risk of not meeting one or more milestones. In a medium risk of bias retrospective study, motor and speech delays in children exposed to antidepressants in utero were compared with children of women who did not take antidepressants during pregnancy (depression status of mothers in either group 171 unknown). Delays were identified by blinded chart review and required physician diagnosis confirmed by a formal developmental evaluation in the course of routine clinical care. No direct evidence on the risk of different treatments for depression during pregnancy on development of autism spectrum disorders in the child was found. Both used health system databases, one in the United States and the other in 161 161 79 Sweden. Both studies adjusted for maternal age and mental health disorders and the 161 Swedish study additionally adjusted for paternal age. Education and Learning We found no evidence on school performance or educational outcomes. Observational studies were found comparing maternal antidepressant exposure compared with nonexposure and risk of lowered intelligence testing results in their children. No breastfeeding data were provided to determine whether direct exposure may have occurred. No direct evidence on the risk of internalizing behaviors in the child with different treatments for depression during pregnancy was found. Internalizing behaviors are described as behaviors directed internally or within the self. They include emotional reactivity, depression, anxiety, irritability and withdrawal. However, increased maternal but not teacher reports of internalizing behaviors were associated with maternal depression (p<0. We found no direct evidence on the risk of externalizing behaviors in the child with different treatments for depression during pregnancy. Externalizing behaviors (noncompliance, verbal/physical aggression, disruptive acts, and emotional outbursts) are described as behaviors which are directed outward. Indirect evidence comes from three observational studies, 139,145,146 but all are high risk of bias, and are not described further. Health Care Utilization We found no direct evidence on health care utilization among children born to mothers with depression during pregnancy, comparing those treated with antidepressants to those not treated, or comparing antidepressants. No direct evidence on the effect of different treatments for depression on preterm birth in women with depression during pregnancy was found. We found no direct evidence on the effect of different treatments for depression on fetal growth in women with depression during pregnancy. One of the studies reported the rates of a depression diagnosis in the treated and untreated group (46% and 36%, respectively). This study also evaluated the result by timing of exposure (first, second or third trimester) and found no statistically significant increase in risk for any of these time points. The best evidence on motor and speech delays comes from a medium risk of bias retrospective study of children exposed to antidepressants in utero who were compared with children of women who did not take antidepressants during pregnancy 171 (depression status of mothers in either group unknown). We found no direct evidence on the risk of different treatments for depression during pregnancy on development of autism spectrum disorders in the child. This study was rated low risk of bias and adjusted for any maternal psychiatric disorder, maternal age, paternal age, parental income, education, occupation, maternal country of birth, and birth parity. We found no direct evidence on the effect of different treatments for depression on preterm birth in women with depression during pregnancy. Other Antidepressants: Bupropion Infant/Child Outcomes Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. A mental health diagnosis was identified in only 33 percent of women, including 10 percent with a depressive disorder. The trial was small (70 women enrolled and 31 completed) and short-term (8 weeks). This is the only direct evidence for maternal outcomes of treatment for depression in the postpartum period. Pregnancy Exposure Maternal Outcomes We found no evidence for maternal outcomes comparing antidepressants to each other for depression during pregnancy. No direct evidence was available comparing one antidepressant to another in women with depression during pregnancy. A single high risk of bias study (n = 809) provides opportunity to 84 compare paroxetine and fluoxetine, where no difference between the drugs was found. No direct evidence was available comparing one antidepressant with another in women with depression during pregnancy. Indirect evidence was limited to one medium risk of bias study reporting the risk of having an infant that is small for gestational age 107 at birth for any specific drug compared with other drugs.

On his return Galton went toTrinity College arrhythmia kidney function quality benicar 40mg, Cambridge 5 benicar 10 mg without prescription, where he was a medical student and where blood pressure medication liver disease benicar 40mg low price, as a result of overwork arrhythmia lyrics order benicar, he broke down in his third year blood pressure xls cheapest benicar. But he recovered quickly on changing his mode of life blood pressure and exercise buy benicar with a mastercard, as he did from similar attacks later. After leaving Cambridge without taking a degree, Galton continued his medical studies in London. But before they were completed, his father died, leaving him a suffcient fortune to make me independent of the medi cal profession. After consulting the Royal Geographical Society, Galton decided to investigate a pos sible opening from the south and west to Lake Ngami, which lies north of the Kalahari desert some 550 miles east of W alvis Bay. The expedition, which included two journeys, one northward, the other eastward, from the same base, 175 7 the 100 Most Influential Scientists of All Time 7 proved to be diffcult and not without danger. As a result, at the age of only 31, Galton was in 1853 elected a fellow of the Royal Geographical Society and, three years later, of the Royal Society. Moreover, over a period of 34 years, he concerned himself with improving standards of measurement. He saw that it invalidated much of contemporary theology and that it also opened possibili ties for planned human betterment. Galton coined the word eugenics to denote scientifc endeavours to increase the proportion of persons with better than average genetic endowment through selective mating of marriage part ners. It is surprising that when Darwin frst read this book, he wrote to the author: You have made a convert of an opponent in one sense for I have always maintained that, excepting fools, men did not differ much in intellect, only in zeal and hard work. On all his topics, Galton has something original and inter esting to say, and he says it with clarity, brevity, distinction, and modesty. Under the terms of his will, a eugenics chair was established at the University of London. Insofar as eugenics takes primary account of inborn differences between human beings, it has come under the suspicion of those who hold that cul tural (social and educational) factors heavily outweigh inborn, or biological, factors in their contribution to 177 7 the 100 Most Influential Scientists of All Time 7 human differences. Eugenics is accordingly often treated as an expression of class prejudice, and Galton as a reac tionary. Yet to some extent this view misrepresents his thought, for his aim was not the creation of an aristocratic elite but of a population consisting entirely of superior men and women. The move to the monastery took him to Brunn, the capital of Moravia, where Mendal was introduced to a diverse and intellectual community. Abbot Cyril Napp found him a substitute-teaching position at Znaim (Znojmo, Czech Rep. Mendel 178 7 Gregor Mendel 7 devoted his time at Vienna to physics and mathematics, working under Austrian physicist Christian Doppler and mathematical physicist Andreas von Ettinghausen. He also studied the anatomy and physiology of plants and the use of the microscope under botanist Franz Unger, an enthusiast for the cell theory and a supporter of the devel opmentalist (pre-Darwinian) view of the evolution of life. In the summer of 1853, Mendel returned to the monas tery in Brunn, and in the following year he was again given a teaching position, this time at the Brunn Realschule (second ary school), where he remained until elected abbot 14 years later. These years were his greatest in terms of success both as teacher and as consummate experimentalist. Experimental Period In 1854, Abbot Cyril Napp permitted Mendel to plan a major experimental program in hybridization at the mon astery. The aim of this program was to trace the transmission of hereditary characters in successive gener ations of hybrid progeny. On the other hand, plant and animal breeders had long shown that crossbreeding could indeed produce a multitude of new forms. Mendel chose to conduct his studies with the edible pea (Pisum sativum) because of the numerous distinct 179 7 the 100 Most Influential Scientists of All Time 7 varieties, the ease of culture and control of pollination, and the high proportion of successful seed germinations. In order to trace the transmission of charac ters, he chose seven traits that were expressed in a distinctive manner, such as plant height (short or tall) and seed colour (green or yellow). The frst generation of hybrids (F1) displayed the character of one variety but not that of the other. In the numerous progeny that he raised from these hybrids (the second generation, F2), however, the recessive character reappeared, and the proportion of offspring bear ing the dominant to offspring bearing the recessive was very close to a 3 to 1 ratio. Study of the descendants (F3) of the dominant group showed that one-third of them were true breeding and two-thirds were of hybrid constitution. The 3:1 ratio could hence be rewritten as 1:2:1, meaning that 50 percent of the F2 generation were true-breeding and 50 per cent were still hybrid. If A represents the dominant characteristic and a the recessive, then the 1:2:1 ratio recalls the terms in the expansion of the binomial equation: (A + a)2 = A2 + 2Aa + a2 180 7 Gregor Mendel 7 Mendel realized further that he could test his expecta tion that the seven traits are transmitted independently of one another. Crosses involving frst two and then three of his seven traits yielded categories of offspring in propor tions following the terms produced from combining two binomial equations, indicating that their transmission was independent of one another. Theoretical Interpretation Mendel went on to relate his results to the cell theory of fertilization, according to which a new organism is gener ated from the fusion of two cells. In order for pure breeding forms of both the dominant and the recessive type to be brought into the hybrid, there had to be some temporary accommodation of the two differing characters in the hybrid as well as a separation process in the formation of the pollen cells and the egg cells. In other words, the hybrid must form germ cells bearing the potential to yield either the one characteristic or the other. This has since been described as the law of segregation, or the doctrine of the purity of the germ cells. Mendel frst presented his results in two separate lec tures in 1865 to the Natural Science Society in Brunn. It attracted little attention, although many libraries received it and reprints were sent out. They overlooked the potential for variability and the evo lutionary implications that his demonstration of the recombination of traits made possible. Mendel appears to have made no effort to publicize his work, and it is not known how many reprints of his paper he distributed. De Vries had a diver sity of results in 1899, but it was not until he reread Mendel in 1900 that he was able to select and organize his data into a rational system. Tschermak had not read Mendel before obtaining his results, and his frst account of his data offers an interpretation in terms of hereditary potency. In subsequent papers he incorporated the Mendelian theory of segregation and the purity of the germ cells into his text. However, Darwinian evolution was assumed to be based chiefy on the selection of small, blending variations, whereas Mendel worked with clearly nonblending variations. He and his supporters were called Mendelians, 182 7 Gregor Mendel 7 and their work was considered irrelevant to evolution. It took some three decades before the Mendelian theory was suffciently developed to fnd its rightful place in evo lutionary theory. The distinction between a characteristic and its deter minant was not consistently made by Mendel or by his successors, the early Mendelians. In 1909, Danish bota nist and geneticist W ilhelm Johannsen clarifed this point and named the determinants genes. Four years later, American zoologist and geneticist Thomas Hunt Morgan located the genes on the chromosomes, and the popular picture of them as beads on a string emerged. Today the gene is defned in several ways, depending upon the nature of the investigation. Genetic material can be syn thesized, manipulated, and hybridized with genetic material from other species, but to fully understand its functions in the whole organism, an understanding of Mendelian inheritance is necessary. As the architect of genetic experimental and statistical analysis, Mendel remains the acknowledged father of genetics. It was he who proved that microorganisms cause fermentation and disease; he who pioneered the use of vaccines for rabies, anthrax, and chicken cholera; he who saved the beer, wine, and silk industries of France and other countries; he who performed 183 7 the 100 Most Influential Scientists of All Time 7 important pioneer work in stereochemistry; and he who originated the process known as pasteurization. Both acids not only had identical chemical compositions but also had the same structure; yet they showed marked differences in properties. Pasteur found that, when separated, the two types of crystals rotated plane polarized light to the same degree but in opposite directions (one to the right, or clockwise, and the other to the left, or counterclockwise). One of the two crystal forms of racemic acid proved to be identical with the tartaric acid of fermentation. As Pasteur showed further, one component of the racemic acid (that identical with the tartaric acid from fermentation) could be utilized for nutrition by micro organisms, whereas the other, which is now termed its optical antipode, was not assimilable by living organisms. On the basis of these experiments, Pasteur elaborated his theory of molecular asymmetry, showing that the biolog ical properties of chemical substances depend not only on the nature of the atoms constituting their molecules but also on the manner in which these atoms are arranged in space. At Lille, after receiving a query from an industrialist on the production of alcohol from grain and beet sugar, Pasteur began his studies on fermentation. He later announced that fer mentation was the result of the activity of minute organisms and that when fermentation failed, either the necessary organism was absent or was unable to grow properly. Pasteur showed that milk could be soured by injecting a number of organisms from buttermilk or beer but could be kept unchanged if such organisms were excluded. By means of simple and precise experiments, including the fltration of air and the expo sure of unfermented liquids to the air of the high Alps, he proved that food decomposes when placed in contact with germs present in the air, which cause its putrefac tion, and that it does not undergo transformation or putrefy in such a way as to spontaneously generate new organisms within itself. After laying the theoretical groundwork, Pasteur pro ceeded to apply his fndings to the study of vinegar and wine, two commodities of great importance in the econ omy of France; his pasteurization process, the destruction of harmful germs by heat, made it possible to produce, preserve, and transport these products without their undergoing deterioration. To carry out the investigation, he moved to the south of France, the centreofsilkwormbreeding.

A new generation of scholars pulse pressure transducer discount benicar 40 mg on-line, with sympathies for blood pressure monitor amazon best buy for benicar, if not roots in arrhythmia during pregnancy discount benicar 10mg online, the popular struggles of the period prehypertension and alcohol purchase benicar amex, rejected the overly psychological blood pressure chart keep track cheap benicar 40mg line, irrationalist view of movements and began to fashion very diferent theoretical accounts arteria aorta definicion discount benicar 20mg line. Empirical work in the feld refects a wide range of research questions, focused at all levels of analysis: macro, meso, and micro. Here, I will restrict myself to the two questions that seem most relevant to the immediate goal of the Group: stimulating grassroots action on the issue of vaccine hesitancy. Lest anyone think that I will ofer a recipe for how to launch a movement, let me disabuse you of the expectation at the outset. Between 2006 and 2011, Hilary Boudet and I (McAdam & Boudet, 2012) carried out a comparative case analysis of 20 communities that had been proposed as sites for major energy infrastructure projects that the U. We hoped to answer several questions with our study, but none more important than the two centrally concerned with movement emergence: How many opposition movements developed across these 20 at-risk communities For me, the project grew out of a longstanding methodological critique of the heavy reliance by social movement scholars on single case studies of major social movements. For all the virtues of the case study method, it comes with a signifcant liability: the hoary problem of selection on the dependent variable. To understand movement emergence, we should be systematically comparing mobilization attempts, or better yet, communities (or populations) at risk for mobilization, rather than the rare, and almost certainly atypical, cases of mobilization that result in sustained, successful social movements. From a methodological standpoint, however, shifting the phenomenon of interest in this way poses challenges. Or more accurately, how do researchers identify or defne communities at risk for mobilization So, how many of our communities generated movements in opposition to the proposed risky projects Across all 20 communities, there were a total of 28 protests, and all but four took place in that single community. And yet, much movement scholarship on the question of origins continues to advance a determinant view. Two broad categories have been stressed as the efective catalyst of social movements: threats and political opportunities. And indeed, a great many movements do seem to arise in response to threats of various kinds. Scholars of ethnic confict have long stressed demographic threats to the integrity of ethnic boundaries as the critical catalyst for episodes of racial/ethnic unrest and violence (Lieberson, 1980; Olzak, 1992, 2006). A host of contemporary movements would also seem to be products of threats to the interests of specifc groups. Black Lives Matter emerged in the days immediately following the shooting death of Michael Brown in Ferguson, Missouri as African Americans responded to the threat of police violence. Wade Supreme Court decision and the shared sense of threat to the sanctity of human life. Under ordinary circumstances, stigmatized, disadvantaged groups face enormous obstacles in their eforts to advance group interests. Marginalized groups exercise little or no infuence within institutional politics precisely because their bargaining position, relative to that of political and economic elites, is so weak. Similarly, is it not sensible to assume that the system will be more or less open to specifc groups at diferent times and at diferent places Instead, rights movements develop when shifting political, social, or economic conditions. Indeed, history shows that many rights movements coincide with such periods of expanding political opportunities. The problem, however, is the same as the one raised above regarding the concept of threat. And here is where the problem of selecting on the dependent variable rears its head again. Does that mean that the concepts of threat For every instance of objective and opportunity have no analytic value in opportunity that appears to the study of movement emergence A dynamic model of movement emergence (Figure 1) highlights two especially critical processes in this regard. Dynamic model of movement emergence Social Innovative Destabilizing Construction Social Collective Change Processes of Threat or Appropriation Action Opportunity Social Construction of Threat or Opportunity Human beings are voracious meaning-makers. Far more often, however, the emerging accounts of a threat or opportunity are highly contingent social constructions that are in no simple sense determined by the change processes themselves. Indeed, in rare instances such interpretations may even arise in the absence of any objective changes in the life circumstances of the group in question (Kurzman, 1996). The researchers began by placing an ad in a local paper inviting individuals to participate in research involving group discussion of community standards and to be paid for their time. They were further told that the frm running the videotaped discussion session was working for the oil company, but was simply gathering information to aid the trial process. In fact, slightly fewer than half did so, reminding us again that objective grievances are not sufcient to produce collective action. The point is, as a prerequisite for action, would-be insurgents must either create an embryonic collective identity or appropriate an existing one. Without minimizing the difculties inherent in the process, social appropriation is far easier than creating a As a prerequisite for action, would sense of we-ness from scratch. The other virtue of appropriation is that it typically afords the burgeoning movement a ready made mobilizing structure. This is, frst and foremost, a social psychological process that has far more to do with social construction, collective attribution, and re-socialization than with any kind of objective inventory of organizational resources. The question takes on added force in the face of the powerful inertial force of most social settings. To transform any routine social setting into a site of incipient rebellion poses a distinct challenge to anyone making the attempt. That is, the single most important factor shaping the prospects for successful appropriation may well be the social status of the would-be appropriator. The success and speed with which innovations difuse depends centrally on the social status of the innovators and initial adopters. The inertial force of social life makes both processes highly unlikely and hard to achieve. Moreover, three additional processes must occur if a movement is to fully develop. The point is that absent a clear sense that its initial actions were successful, most would-be movements die quickly. The implication is that movements are not fully in control of their fate; rather, their infuence is shaped by perturbations in the broader environment within which they operate. The movement-centric emphasis of recent scholarship (McAdam & Boudet, 2012) is in sharp contrast to this external focus. With its stress on movement-framing processes, strategies, tactics, and resource mobilization, the social movement literature often ignores environmental infuences in favor of an emphasis on the decisions made by insurgents. This implicitly locates the source of change, agency, and outcomes within the movement itself. The suggestion in much of this literature is that adherence to non-violent principles confers great strategic advantage on movements that adopt such tactics. Successful movements also depend critically on the capacity of movement actors to recognize and respond strategically to the evolving opportunities and constraints aforded them by environmental changes. Having sketched this general analytic framework for considering the development and impact of social movements, it is important to introduce the distinction between what Gamson (1975) frst termed members and challengers. Challengers, on the other hand, are marginalized groups whose interests are routinely organized out of institutionalized political deliberations because they lack insider status and bargaining leverage. Challenger movements, on the other hand, typically involve broader and potentially more threatening goals pursued through a mix of strategies, but with a much heavier reliance on disruptive, or otherwise unconventional, tactics. First, challenger movements depend for their emergence and ultimate success on expanding political opportunities far more than insider movements. Broad changes that reduce these disparities are thus critical if the movement is to achieve any measure of success. The other diference between outsider and insider movements is the much greater reliance of the former on non-institutional, and often disruptive, forms of collective action. Lacking insider connections and the kinds of conventional political and economic resources enjoyed by members, the success of challengers often depends on their ability to disrupt or threaten to disrupt business as usual in order to compel their opponents to grant concessions as a condition of restoring order. A movement to promote vaccination or counter the burgeoning anti-vaccination movement would almost certainly fall into this category. I bring the paper to a close by describing three very diferent movement strategies and afliated targets, using social movement theory to assess the relative merits and potential liabilities of each approach. While anti-vaccination sentiment and behavior have existed in some form for two centuries (Wolfe & Sharp, 2002), there has clearly been a signifcant rise in recent decades. Research on the cognitive and afective content of the anti-vaccination narrative serves to reinforce this concern. As Brewer, Chapman, Rothman, Leask, and Kempe (2017) put it: antivaccination activists tell a good story the stories elicit emotions such as anger, fear, and regret, as well as medical mistrust As a result, antivaccine messages are interesting, memorable, and in demand. More worrisome, perhaps, is the very real possibility that the counternarrative will prove inefective, or worse, backfre and grant more visibility and legitimacy to the anti-vaccination activists. Second, quite apart from the resonance of the competing narratives, we should also worry about the institutional identities associated with the typical pro-vaccination spokespersons. In an era of rising anti-government, anti-science, anti-elite sentiment, one can imagine pronouncements by leading public health or other government ofcials reinforcing, rather than allaying, the fears and suspicions of those inclined toward anti-vaccination views. The presence of a radical fank may also allow moderates to portray themselves as the reasonable and responsible voices within the larger movement (Connor & Epstein, 2007; Elsbach & Sutton, 1992; Hofman & Bertels, 2009). One component of the movement might involve conventional public health education campaigns targeting specifc communities with especially low vaccination rates. For this to work, however, the current trend of health care providers denying service to those who hesitate or choose not to be vaccinated would have to be reversed. The hope is that with repeated eforts at persuasion, their fears and misconceptions can be overcome. While member movements often succeed in the absence of signifcant grassroots activism, insider reform combined with pressure from grassroots groups would certainly increase the chances of movement success. One caution: I would restrict these legislative movements to the most receptive states or other jurisdictions. Better to leave sleeping dogs lie in non receptive states, while concentrating pro-vaccination eforts in states reliably committed to immunization. First, What factors or dynamic processes appear to shape the emergence of social movements Rather, the origin of a movement refects the subjective signifcance attached to that threat or opportunity by a specifc group, which then begins to engage in sustained collective action in response to their shared perception. The vaccine hesitancy movement did not emerge because of an increase in the objective risk posed by vaccines, but because specifc groups constructed an account of increased risk and began acting collectively to counter that perceived threat. While the characteristic features and typical dynamics of insider and outsider movements tend to be quite diferent, the long-term success of either generally refects the interaction of two factors. As we have seen, successful movements typically beneft from prior, destabilizing change processes that render their opponents more receptive to movement infuence. Wright Mills Award; and Dynamics of Contention (Cambridge University Press, 2001), with Sid Tarrow and Charles Tilly. The structure of political opportunities and peasant mobilization in Central America. The origins of the civil rights movement: Black communities organizing for change. The three main propositions are that vaccination results from: (1) what people think and feel, (2) social processes, and (3) direct behavior change (Figure 1). Colleagues and I previously reviewed the evidence for these propositions and put forward what has become known as the Increasing Vaccination Model (Brewer, Chapman, Rothman, Leask, & Kempe, 2017). However, its length and complexity have been barriers to its use by some practitioners. These high rates have caused the incidence of many infectious diseases to plummet in the decades since relevant vaccines have been introduced. Inadequate coverage is the uptake of vaccination that fails to meet an agreed-on quality marker. While global vaccination coverage rates have steadily drifted upwards, they have stalled in some regions and even slipped backwards in a few countries. Despite rates have steadily drifted upwards, clear fndings that the current vaccination they have stalled in some regions schedule is safe, parents are increasingly and even slipped backwards in a choosing to spread out or delay vaccines in few countries. Some countries with generally high vaccination coverage have experienced periods of dramatic instability. On the left side of the fgure, disease risk appraisals are thoughts and feelings about potential health problems caused by infectious agents (perceived risk and fear); vaccine confdence is the attitude that vaccines are good (efective) or bad (unsafe).

In 1796 Laplace published Exposition du systeme du monde (The System of the World) heart attack fever order benicar 20mg overnight delivery, a semipopular treatment of his 118 7 Pierre-Simon Laplace 7 work in celestial mechanics and a model of French prose blood pressure 50 over 70 purchase benicar uk. His Traite de mecanique celeste (Celestial Mechanics) blood pressure by age chart effective benicar 10 mg, appearing in fve volumes between 1798 and 1827 blood pressure z score calculator benicar 20mg fast delivery, summarized the results obtained by his mathematical development and application of the law of gravitation blood pressure chart readings for ages benicar 10mg for sale. He offered a complete mechanical interpreta tion of the solar system by devising methods for calculating the motions of the planets and their satellites and their perturbations blood pressure medication dehydration order genuine benicar, including the resolution of tidal problems. In 1814 Laplace published a popular work for the gen eral reader, Essai philosophique sur les probabilites (A Philosophical Essay on Probability). This work was the intro duction to the second edition of his comprehensive and important Theorie analytique des probabilites (Analytic Theory of Probability), frst published in 1812, in which he described many of the tools he invented for mathematically predict ing the probabilities that particular events will occur in nature. He applied his theory not only to the ordinary problems of chance but also to the inquiry into the causes of phenomena, vital statistics, and future events, while emphasizing its importance for physics and astronomy. The book is notable also for including a special case of what became known as the central limit theorem. Laplace proved that the distribution of errors in large data samples from astronomical observations can be approximated by a Gaussian or normal distribution. Probably because he did not hold strong political views and was not a member of the aristocracy, he escaped imprisonmentandexecutionduringtheFrenchRevolution. Laplace was president of the Board of Longitude, aided in the organization of the metric system, helped found the 119 7 the 100 Most Influential Scientists of All Time 7 scientifc Society of Arcueil, and was created a marquis. He served for six weeks as minister of the interior under Napoleon, who famously reminisced that Laplace carried the spirit of the infnitesimal into administration. Jenner lived at a time when the patterns of British medical practice and education were undergoing gradual change. Jenner attended grammar school and at the age of 13 was apprenticed to a nearby surgeon. In the following eight years Jenner acquired a sound knowledge of medical and surgical practice. On completing his apprenticeship at the age of 21, he went to London and became the house pupil of John Hunter, who was on the staff of St. Even more important, however, he was an anato mist, biologist, and experimentalist of the frst rank; not only did he collect biological specimens, but he also con cerned himself with problems of physiology and function. After studying in London from 1770 to 1773, he returned to country practice in Berkeley and enjoyed substantial success. In addition to practic ing medicine, he joined two medical groups for the promotion of medical knowledge and wrote occasional medical papers. He played the violin in a musical club, wrote light verse, and, as a naturalist, made many obser vations, particularly on the nesting habits of the cuckoo and on bird migration. Smallpox was widespread in the 18th century, and occa sional outbreaks of special intensity resulted in a very high death rate. The disease, a leading cause of death at the time, respected no social class, and disfgurement was not uncommon in patients who recovered. The practice, which originated in China and India, was based on two distinct concepts: frst, that one attack of smallpox effectively protected against any subsequent attack and, second, that a person deliberately infected with a mild case of the disease would safely acquire such protection. Unfortunately, the transmitted dis ease did not always remain mild, and mortality sometimes 121 7 the 100 Most Influential Scientists of All Time 7 occurred. Furthermore, the inoculated person could dis seminate the disease to others and thus act as a focus of infection. Pondering this phenomenon, Jenner concluded that cowpox not only protected against smallpox but could be transmitted from one person to another as a deliberate mechanism of protection. In May 1796 Jenner found a young dairymaid, Sarah Nelmes, who had fresh cowpox lesions on her hand. Phipps became slightly ill over the course of the next 9 days but was well on the 10th. In 1798 Jenner, hav ing added further cases, published privately a slender book entitled An Inquiry into the Causes and Effects of the Variolae Vaccinae. The procedure spread rapidly to America and the rest of Europe and soon was carried around the world. Jenner received worldwide recog nition and many honours, but he made no attempt to enrich himself through his discovery and actually devoted so much time to the cause of vaccination that his private practice and personal affairs suffered severely. Parliament voted him a sum of 10,000 in 1802 and a further sum of 20,000 in 1806. Jenner not only received honours but also aroused opposition and found himself subjected to attacks and calumnies, despite which he continued his 122 7 Edward Jenner 7 activities on behalf of vaccination. His wife, ill with tuber culosis, died in 1815, and Jenner retired from public life. July 27, 1844, Manchester) nglish meteorologist and chemist John Dalton was a Epioneer in the development of modern atomic theory. Early Scientifc Career In 1793 Dalton published a collection of essays, Meteorological Observations and Essays, on meteorologic topics based on his own observations together with those of his friends John Gough and Peter Crosthwaite. Dalton upheld the view, against contemporary opin ion, that the atmosphere was a physical mixture of approximately 80 percent nitrogen and 20 percent oxygen rather than being a specifc compound of elements. He measured the capacity of the air to absorb water vapour and the variation of its partial pressure with temperature. He defned partial pressure in terms of a physical law whereby every constituent in a mixture of gases exerted the same pressure it would have if it had been the only gas present. This paper was the frst 123 7 the 100 Most Influential Scientists of All Time 7 publication on colour blindness, which for some time thereafter was known as Daltonism. He based his theory of partial pressures on the idea that only like atoms in a mixture of gases repel one another, whereas unlike atoms appear to react indifferently toward each other. Although this view was later shown to be erroneous, it served a useful purpose in allowing him to abolish the idea, held by many previous atomists from the Greek philosopher Democritus to the 18th-century mathematician and astronomer Ruggero Giuseppe Boscovich, that atoms of all kinds of matter are alike. Dalton claimed that atoms of different elements vary in size and mass, and indeed this claim is the cardinal feature of his atomic theory. He focused upon determin ing the relative masses of each different kind of atom, a process that could be accomplished, he claimed, only by considering the number of atoms of each element present in different chemical compounds. Although Dalton had taught chemistry for several years, he had not yet performed actual research in this feld. If such measurements were to be meaningful, the elements had to combine in fxed pro portions. His measurements, crude as they were, allowed him to formulate the Law of Multiple Proportions: When two elements form more than one compound, the masses of one element that combine with a fxed mass of the other are in a ratio of small whole numbers. Thus, taking the ele ments as A and B, various combinations between them naturally occur according to the mass ratios A:B = x:y or x:2y or 2x:y, and so on. Different compounds were formed by combining atomic building blocks of different masses. As the Swedish chemist Jons Jacob Berzelius wrote to Dalton: The law of multiple proportions is a mystery without the atomic theory. The problem remained, however, that a knowledge of ratios was insuffcient to determine the actual number of elemental atoms in each compound. Since then, chemists have shown 125 7 the 100 Most Influential Scientists of All Time 7 the theory of Daltonian atomism to be a key factor under lying further advances in their feld. May 13, 1832, Paris) rench zoologist and statesman Baron Georges Cuvier Festablished the sciences of comparative anatomy and paleontology. From 1784 to 1788 Cuvier attended the Academie Caroline (Karlsschule) in Stuttgart, Ger. For a time the two scientists collaborated, and in 1795 they jointly published a study of mammalian classifcation, but their views eventually diverged. In this work, based also on his lectures at the museum, he put forward his principle of the correlation of parts, according to which the anatom ical structure of every organ is functionally related to all other organs in the body of an animal, and the functional and structural characteristics of organs result from their 126 7 Georges Cuvier 7 interaction with their environment. Cuvier also argued that the anatomical characteristics distinguishing groups of animals are evidence that species had not changed since the Creation. Each species is so well coordinated, functionally and structurally, that it could not survive signifcant change. He further main tained that each species was created for its own special purpose and each organ for its special function. In denying evolution, Cuvier disagreed with the views of his colleague Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, who published his theory of evo lution in 1809, and eventually also with Geoffroy, who in 1825 published evidence concerning the evolution of crocodiles. W hile continuing his zoological work at the museum, Cuvier served as imperial inspector of public instruction and assisted in the establishment of French provincial uni versities. He also wrote the Rapport historique sur les progres des sciences naturelles depuis 1789, et sur leur etat actuel (Historical Report on the Progress of the Sciences), published in 1810. Meanwhile, Cuvier also applied his views on the cor relation of parts to a systematic study of fossils that he had excavated. These constituted astonish ing new evidence that whole species of animals had become extinct. He summarized his conclusions, frst in 1812 in his Recherches sur les ossements fossiles de quadrupedes (Researches on the Bones of Fossil Vertebrates), which included the essay Discours preliminaire (Preliminary Discourse), as well as in the expansion of this essay in book form in 1825, Discours sur les revolutions de la surface du globe (Discourse on the Revolutions of the Globe). Catastrophism remained a major geologic doctrine until it was shown that slow changes over long periods of time could explain the features of the Earth. Cuvier showed that animals possessed so many diverse anatomi cal traits that they could not be arranged in a single linear system. Instead, he arranged animals into four large groups of animals (vertebrates, mollusks, articulates, and radi ates), each of which had a special type of anatomical organization. All animals within the same group were clas sifed together, as he believed they were all modifcations of one particular anatomical type. Although his classifca tion is no longer used, Cuvier broke away from the 18th-century idea that all living things were arranged in a continuous series from the simplest up to man. By rejecting the 18th century method of arranging animals in a continuous series in favour of classifying them in four separate groups, he raised the key question of why animals were anatomi callydifferent. He did this by introducing fossils into zoological classifcation, showing the progres sive relation between rock strata and their fossil remains, and by demonstrating, in his comparative anatomy and his reconstructions of fossil skeletons, the importance of functional and anatomical relationships. With his book Kosmos he made a valuable contribution to the popu larization of science. Expedition to South America the conviction had grown in Humboldt that his real aim in life was scientifc exploration, and in 1797 he set himself to acquiring a thorough knowledge of the systems of geo detic, meteorological, and geomagnetic measurements.

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